Direct and Indirect Speech

We use direct speech when we report what somebody A, has said by repeating within quotation marks, exactly the same words used by A.

We use indirect speech when we report what A has said without using the actual words used by A. So, quotation marks are not used.

Example :

Direct Speech - Karan said,"The sun rises in the east."

Indirect Speech - Karan said that the sun rises in the east.

When we change the mode of narration, that is, direct speech to indirect speech, or indirect to direct, we usually have to make some changes. These changes depend on the tense of the verb of speaking, who is saying what to whom, and how.

Look at the five examples given below carefully :

1. Teacher said,"Honesty is the best policy." (Assertive)
   Teacher said that honesty is the best policy.


2. Sam asked me,"Have you seen the Taj?" (Question)
   Sam asked me whether I had seen the Taj.


3. Joy said,"How cold it is today!" (Exclamation)
   Joy exclaimed that it was very cold that day.


4. The king said,"Everybody must help each other." (Order)
   The king ordered everybody to help each other.
   The king gave an order that everybody must help each other.


5. Rita said,"Mary, please keep quiet." (Request)
   Rita requested Mary to keep quiet.

We use the word that in place of comma in indirect speech to report what the speaker has spoken.

We use small letter in indirect speech to start the part of inverted commas.

Direct speech is always written within inverted commas ("").

Punctuation

Punctuation is the use of different marks in writing to make the meaning of the sentences clear.

ABC	,	'	's
Capital Letters	Comma	Apostrophe	Possessive
.	?	!	"..."
Full Stop	Question Mark	Exclamation Mark	Inverted Commas

Assertive and Imperative sentences require (.).
Exclamatory sentences and Interjections require (!).
Interrogative sentences require (?).

Capital letters are used :

• to start a sentence
• first letter of proper noun
• first letter of first word of inverted commas
• first letter of every line of a poem
• 'I' is always capital

Inverted commas (" ") are used to write direct speech within.

Let us look closely at commas

Usage of Comma	Examples
Between items of a series or a list	I planted daisies, roses, poppies and dahlias in my garden. I woke early, ate breakfast, got dressed and went out.
Between three or more adjectives or adverbs of same type.	This is an old, brown, wooden table. He worked quickly, quietly and confidently.
To give a puse in a long sentence	As it began to rain, we went in doors.

Using a comma to separate the last item in a list is optional; For example, Hari, ram, and Gita or Hari, Ram and gita - both are correct.

Apostrophe with possessive form

We use apostrophe with s to show belonging. This is used to make the possessive form of a noun.

We mostly use apostrophe (') with s with the following:

Apostrophe with possessive	Examples
People	These are the girl's books. (one girl) These are the girls' books. (two or more girls) This is Eve's book. This is my parents' cupboard. You can sleep in the children's room.
Animals	The dog's ears are ling. (one dog) These are the dogs' biscuits. (two or more dogs)
Some expressions of time	I'm taking a week's holiday in December. They gave me two months' leave.
Compound words	My brother-in-law's house is in the next lane.
The last noun to show joint possession of an object	Peter and Annes' bicycle was stolen yesterday.

With plural nouns, we only add an apostrophe after the -s. For examples :

• the girls' school
• the babies' toys

If the plural nouns do not end in an -s, then add the apostrophe and s. For examples :

• the women's bags
• the men's coats
• the children's crayons

We do not use apostrophe and s with names of places. For examples :

• Kovalam Beach
• Marine Drive

Apostrophe in contraction

We use apostrophes when we write contractions. The apostrophe shows the missing letter(s). Look at the words given below :

• are not = aren't
• will not = won't

Parts of a sentence

A sentence has two parts :

1. The subject is the person(s) or the thing(s) we are talking about. It may consist of one word or many words.
2. The predicate tells us something about the subject. It may also consist of one word or many words.

   An old woman	reads holy books
   Subject	Predicate

In some imperative sentences, the subject may not be stated. It is understood.
Complete your work. (You is the hidden subject.)

Sentences

A sentence is a group of words that makes a complete sense.

There are four kinds of sentences :

1. A sentence which simply says or states something is known as declarative or assertive sentence.
   Examples :
   John is an honest boy. (Affirmative)
   Tea is not hot. (Negative)


2. A sentence which asks a question is known as an interrogative sentence.
   Examples :
   Is John an honest boy?
   Why are trees useful?


3. A sentence which gives an order or make a request or an entreaty is known as an imperative sentence.
   Examples :
   Be kind. (order)
   Kindly pay the bill. (request)
   Please help me. (entreaty)


4. A sentence which expresses some strong feeling or emotion is known as exclamatory sentence.
   Examples :
   How beautiful the flower is!
   What a speech she gave!

• We always put a full stop (.) at the end of Assertive and Imperative sentence.
• We always put a question mark (?) at the end of Interrogative sentence.
• We always put an exclamation mark (!) at the end of Exclamatory sentence.

Articles

There are two types of articles :

• Indefinite 'a' and 'an'
• Definite 'the'

Read the table to understand when to use articles

Articles a/an	Examples
The articles a and an are indefinite srticles. They are used before singular common countable nouns. The articles a and an are also used before collective nouns.	a uniform, a ball a university, a one eyed man, a usual practice, an engine an onion, an hour, an honest man, an unbrella

An is used before singular common countable nouns beginning with a vowel sound, examples : an ox, an MLA

Articles the	Examples
The article the is a definite article. It is used before a specific or definite person or thing.	Bring me the uniform from the bedroom cupboard.
We also use the article before -
ordinal numbers	the first, the last
the superlative begree of comparison	the best, the highest
names of unique things	the earth, the sun, the sky
names of nationalities, races and communities	the Indians, the Americans
names of countries that indicate that the country is made up of many parts	the United Kingdom, the U.S.A
names of mountain ranges and deserts	the Himalayas, the Sahara
names of rivers, seas and oceans	the Ganga, the Arabian Sea
names of important buildings	the Red Fort, the Taj Mahal
names of newspapers and holy books	the Times of India, the Bible
to indicate certain noun	switch on the fan

Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech is a category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions.

Main parts of the speech are :

• Nouns
• Pronoun
• Verbs
• Adverbs
• Adjectives
• Conjunctions
• Prepositions
• Interjections

Interjections

An interjection is a word of exclamation.

After an interjection, we add a mark of exclamation (!).

Examples :

1. Hush! the baby is asleep.
2. Help! He is drowning.
3. Hellp! How are you?
4. Bravo! You have played well.

Some Interjections

1. Hurrah! expresses joy.
   Example : Hurrah! We have won the match.


2. Bravo! expresses appreciation when someone has done something well.
   Example : Bravo! You have played well.


3. Yuck! (or yuk!) expresses extreme dislike.
   Example : Milk and bread! Yuck! I can't have that for food.


4. Hellp! expresses greeting someone.
   Example : Hellp! Vasu! How are you?


5. Alas! expresses sadness.
   Example : Alas! I am ruined!


6. Oh! expresses surprise, fear, etc.
   Example : Oh! how dangerous!


7. Help!! expresses fear.
   Example : Help! He is wounded.


8. Wow! expresses surprise and admiration.
   Example : Wow! What a lovely party!


9. Hush! expresses silence or less noise.
   Example : Hush! Do not talk in the library.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to join the words, phrases (group of words) and sentences.

Examples :

1. Will you stay at your uncle's house or my uncles' house? (to join groups of words)
2. You may stay here until your train arrives. (to join sentences)
3. I like burger as well as pizza. (to join two words)

• We use and to join words and sentences with similar ideas.
• We use but when we want to show difference or contrast. We also use but when something unexpected happens.
• Because and so are conjunctions that show us reason.
• Or shows a choice and though shows a fact that makes another fact look surprising or unusual.

While, although, when and since are also conjunctions.

Although is used just like though. They both work like the conjunction but.

Look at these sentences :

• While the ant was looking for food, the grasshopper was singing.
• Although the ant warned the grasshopper, it did not care to store any food.
• When the winter came, the grasshopper had no food for its family.
• Since there was no food in the house, the grasshoppers starved.
• While and when are conjunctions of time. They tell us when something happens.

• You can use although in the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example :

  • The grasshopper did not care to store any food, although the ant had warned it to do so.
• Since is used to tell why something happens. It is called a conjunction of reason, just like because and for.

Prepositions

Preposition

A preposition is a small word that shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence.

Examples

• Kertik jumped into the pool.
• Do not be afraid of the dog.
• My car is parked near the gate.
• There are 4 mangoes in the basket.

In/on/at

Usage	Examples
We use in for parts of the day except night.	in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, at night
We use in for a period of time, months, years and seasons.	in a week, in January, in 2018, in summer
We use on for specific dates.	on 7 December
We use at for specific times.	My school begins at 8 a.m. and gets over at 1:30 p.m.

For/since/during, We use for, since and during for a period of time.

Usage	Examples
We use for to tell how long the period is.	I work for five hours every day.
We use since to tell how long back something happened and is happening till now.	Saurabh has been my friend since my childhood.
We use during when we are talking about a specific period of time.	I usually join summer courses during vacations.

Until/by

Usage	Examples
We use until when something happens up to a certain time or event as mentioned.	You cannot leave until tomorrow.
We use by to talk about a time when something will be done.	I will be home by 4 p.m.

Adverbs

Adverb

An adverb is a word which adds to the meaning of an adjective, a verb or another adverb.

• He is walking sleepily.
• They are walking tiredly.
• She is walking slowly.
• He is walking briskly.
• He is walking angrily.

These can modify the adjective and adverb also.

Kinds of Adverb

Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time show us when actions happen.
Example :

• He reached home late.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Manner show us how actions happen.
Example :

• He speaks loudly.

Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of Place tell us where actions happen.
Example :

• She went outside.

Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs.

Look at these examples :

• This coffee is too sweet. (adjective)
• She ran very fast. (adverb)

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency shows how often an action takes place.
Examples :

• I never play in the street. I always play in the park.
• I go to the park once a week. I normally play with my friends in the garden in my house.
• I hardly ever play in the park.

Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of degree modify the adverbs or adjectives.
Examples :

• How will I enjoy my trip to Paris? I can hardly speak French.
• I am extremely good at it. I will do all the talking!
• I an quite eager to see the Eiffel Tower.
• I believe Paris is a very beautiful city.

Tenses

These express time in a sentence.

There are three kinds of tenses :

1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense

The different forms of verbs tell us the time when an action happened.

Kinds of Tenses

Forms of verb	Examples
Verbs may be in the simple present tense that describes everyday action (verb I +s/es)	The clouds sail.
Verbs may be in the present continuous tense that tells us what is happening now. (is/am/are + vI + ing)	The birds are flying.
Verbs may be in the simple past tense that tells us what has already happened. (Verb II)	The swan swam with the cygnets.
Verbs may be in the past continuous tense that tell us what was happening. (was/were + vI + ing)	The birds were flying in the sky.
Verbs may be in the simple future tense that tells us about an action that has not yet happened but is likely to happen. (will/shall + vI)	The sun will set. I shall see you tomorrow.
Verbs also tell us the state of being of a person, animal or thing. (Be verb)	The swan is white. Lilies are flowers. I am tall.
Verbs also tell us the possession of a noun. (Have verb)	He has a school bag. I have five rupees.

• In simple present tense - use verb I + s/es with singular subjects e.g., he, she, it, boy, my mother, etc.
• And use base form of verb with I, you and plural subjects e.g., they, we, girls, my brothers, etc.
• In present continuous tense use 'am' with 'I', 'is' with singular subjects and 'are' with 'you' and plural subjects.
• In simple past tense - use Verb II (Past form of verb with all subjects.)
• In past continuous tanse - use 'was' with 'I' and singular subjects; 'were' with 'you' and plural subjects.
• In simple future tense - use 'shall + VI' with 'I' and 'we'; (will + VI) with all other subjects.
• In the state of being for 'is, am, are, was, were' follow the present and past continuous rules.
• In the possession use -'has' with singular subjects;'have' with I, you and plural subjects; 'had' for past possession and with all subjects.

Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives are used to compare qualities of nouns or pronouns. There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives.

• When the quality of a thing is stated and no comparison is being made, the adjective used is in the positive degree, for example: sweet.
• When the quality of two things is being compared, the adjective used is in the comparative degree, for example, sweeter.
• When the quality of more than two things is being comapared, the adjective used is in the superlative degree, for example, sweetest.

The comparative and superlative forms of the adjective can be formed in different ways:

	Positive	Comparative	Superlative
With most adjectives		add -er	add -est
	big thick	bigger thicker	biggest thickest
If an adjective ends with a vowel + -y		add -er	add -est
	grey	greyer	greyest
If an adjective ends with -e		add -r	add -st
	large simple nice	larger simpler nicer	largest simplest nicest
If an adjective ends with consonant + -y		remove -y and add -ier	remove -y and add -iest
	busy happy	busier happier	busiest happiest
If an adjective ends with a single vowel + consonant		double the consonant and add -er	double the consonant and add -est
	hot thin	hotter thinner	hottest thinnest
If an adjective has more than two syllables		add more	add most
	beautiful difficult	more beautiful more difficult	most beautiful most difficult
Some adjectives do not follow any pattern.	good/well much/many old little far bad	better more older/elder less farther/further worse	best most oldest/eldest least farthest/furthest worst

Verbs

A verb can show existence, action or occurrence.

Examples :

• Kim likes dogs.
• Elephants eat bananas.
• We go to school.
• He likes to swim.
• An elephant eats bananas.
• Tina and Tanya like cats.
• She goes to school.
• I go to school.

Singular subject - Singular Verb
Plural Subject - Plural Verb

Subject Verb Agreement

The subject and verb in a sentence must always match. This is called subject-verb agreement.

Read this table to know more about the usage of singular verb

Uses of singular verb	Examples
With singular countable nouns	The table is broken.
With uncountable nouns	The sugar in the bowl is not enough.
With collective nouns that are taken to be singular	A herd of cows is grazing there.
With numbers like money, weight and distance	Twenty kilometers is a long distance to cover on foot.
With subjects' names	Physics is my favourite subject.

Read this table to know more about the usage of plural verb

Uses of plural verb	Examples
With plural countable nouns	Those tables are broken.
With two singular nouns joined by 'and'	Ritu and Renu are good friends.
With nouns that are always plural	My trousers are torn.
With collective nouns that are taken to be plural	The teams have flown for Chennai.
With 'I' as the subject	I sing loudly.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A transitive verb takes an object.

Intransitive verbs do not take objects.

But the same verb can be used as transitive and intransitive.

Examples :

Verbs used intransitively	Verbs used transitively
Grandmother bakes well.	Grandmother bakes bread.
The artist painted today.	The artist painted a portrait today.
She kicked hard.	She kicked The ball hard.

Helping Verbs

• Modals are helping verbs.
• Will, would, can, could, may, might, etc., are called modal verbs.
• We use modals to ask someone to do something, ask for permission and express possibility or ability, etc.
• These are not affected by singular or plural subjects.

Modals can not be used alone but with a main verb.

will/would

Usage	Examples
We use will and would to - ask someone to do something make a suggestion or offer to do something	Will you shut the door, please? Would you like me to clear the table?
Will is used to express determination or willingness to do something.	I will work hard.

can/could

Usage	Examples
We use can to - show ability give permission	She can paint well. You can use my colours for today.
We use can/could to - ask for permission make a suggestion	Can/Could I use your pencil? I can/could help you if you like.

may/might

Usage	Examples
We use may to - ask for permission give permission say something which is likely to happen in the future	May I go out to play? You may go out to play. It may/might rain tonight.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words which we use in place of nouns.

Example :

• Anu bought a pen but she lost it in the classroom.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are used in place of the names of persons, animals and things.

Read the table to find out how personal pronouns are used as subject and object pronouns.

Pronoun (person)	Singular		Plural
	Subject	Object	Subject	Object
First person - used for the person who is talking	I	me	we	us
Second person - used for the person to whom one is talking	you	you	you	you
Third person - used for the person to who is being talked about	he	him	they	them
	she	her

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns are used to show ownership or possession.

Example :
This is Jenny's book. This book is hers.
The pronouns mine, ours, yours, his, hers and theirs are possessive pronouns.

Difference between Possessive pronouns and Possessive adjectives

The words mine and yours are possessive pronouns. They are used in place of nouns and tell us to whom something belongs.
The words my and your are possessive adjectives. They also tell us to whom something belongs. However, they are always used before nouns and act as adjectives.

Look at these sentences :

• This is my pencil. (Possessive adjective)
• This pencil is mine. (possessive pronoun)

The table below show some possessive adjectives and the related possessive pronouns.

Possessive adjectives are always used before noun.

Possessive adjectives	Possessive pronouns
my	mine
your	yours
our	ours
his	his
her	hers
their	theirs
its	---

Adjectives

Adjectives are words, that describe nouns or pronouns.

Adjectives remain the same for singular and plural nouns or pronouns.

Examples :

This is a huge building.
I have ten fingers.

Kinds of Adjectives

Adjective of quality

It describes the quality of a noun or pronoun. It answers'of what kind' the noun or pronoun is.
Example :
Komal is a pretty girl.
pretty is adjective.
girl is noun.

Adjective of number

Adjective of number expresses the number of nouns or pronouns. It answers ' how many'.
Example :
I have four mangoes.
four is adjective.
mangoes is noun.

Adjective of quantity

It tells us the quantity and amount of nouns or pronouns. It gives the answer of 'how much'.
Example :
The guest wants some water.
some is adjective.
water is noun.

Demonstrative adjective

It points out the nouns or pronouns.
Example :
Those boys were not in the class.
Those is adjective.
boys is noun.

Possessive adjective

It shows belong to or possession. It answers the question 'whose'.
Example :
Her sister studies in 4th standard.
Her is adjective.
sister is noun.

Order of Adjectives

When more than one adjective is used before a noun, they have to be put in the right order.

1. Determiner : A determiner refers to articles like a, an and the.


2. Opinion : An opinion adjective explains what you think about something (other people may not agree with you.). For examples : horrible, difficult, silly, beautiful


3. Size :A size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is. For examples : new, young, ancient, old.


4. Age : An age adjective tells you how young or old something or someone is. For examples : new, young, ancient, old.


5. Shape : A shape adjective describes the shape of something. For examples : flat, rectangular, square, round.


6. Colour : A colour adjective, of course, describes the colour of something. For examples : blue, grey, pink, reddish.


7. Origin : An origin adjective describes where something comes from. For examples : American, eastern, French, lunar, Greek.


8. Material : A material adjective describes what something is made from. For examples : metal, wooden, paper, cotton.


9. Purpose : A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives aften end with '-ing'. For example : sleeping (as in 'sleeping bag'), baking (as in 'baking tin').

*D	Opinion	Size	Age	Shape	Colour	Origin	Material	Purpose	Noun
a	beautiful		old			American			woman
a		tiny		square			wooden		chair
a		large			yellow			baking	tin

Nouns (Gender)

Noun can be a male, female, either of a male or a female or can be lifeless object.

There are four kinds of Gender.
1. Masculine Gender : If a living noun is a male, it is in masculine gender.
   Examples : brother, tiger, son, etc.
2. Feminine Gender : If a living noun is a female, it is in feminine gender.
   Examples : sister, tigress, daughter, etc.
3. Common Gender : If a living noun is either a male or a female, it is common gender.
   Examples : baby, animal, doctor, etc.
4. Neuter Gender : A lifeless noun is in neuter gender.
   Examples : bus, chair, cloud, etc.

Changing Masculine Nouns into Feminine

A Masculine Noun can be changed into Feminine by following one of the rules :

1. By adding -ess to Masculine Nouns

   Masculine	Feminine
   lion	lioness
   priest	priestess
   mayor	mayoress
   author	authoress
   poet	poetess
   host	hostess
   manager	manageress
   shepherd	shepherdess

2. By dropping last vowel in the Masculine Nouns and adding -ess to them.

   Masculine	Feminine
   actor	actress
   tiger	tigress
   waiter	waitress
   negro	negress
   governor	governess
   hunter	huntress
   emperor	empress
   lion	lioness

3. By using an entirely different word.

   Masculine	Feminine
   boy	girl
   bull	cow
   dog	bitch
   uncle	aunt
   man	woman
   sir	madam
   husband	wife
   bachelor	spinster
   boy scout	girl guide
   bridegroom	bride
   governor	matron
   gentleman	lady
   cock	hen
   brother	sister
   king	queen
   monk	nun
   son	daughter
   nephew	niece
   male	female
   wizard	witch
   widower	widow
   Mr	Mrs

4. By changing the Masculine part into Feminine

   Masculine	Feminine
   landlord	landlady
   peacock	peahen
   grandfather	grandmother
   milkman	milkmaid
   salesman	saleswoman
   grandson	granddaughter

5. By adding a word to the Common Gender

   Common	Masculine	Feminine
   baby	he-baby	she-baby
   bear	he-bear	she-bear
   calf	bull-calf	cow-calf
   goat	he-goat	she-goat
   friend	boyfriend	girlfriend
   police	policeman	policewoman
   servant	manservant	maidservant

Nouns (Possessive Case)

Possessive Case

Possessive case, is used to show possession or ownership.

Examples

1. He lives in the house of Radha.
   He lives in Radha's house.
2. The doll of the girl is beautiful.
   Girl's doll is beautiful.

Formation of the Possessive case

1. When the noun is singular, add apostrophe (') and 's' to the noun.
   Examples :
   • Atif's confectionery
   • Komal's saree
   • Rohan's office
   • The queen's crown


2. When the noun is plural and ends in 's', use only apostrophe (').
   Examples :
   • Boys' college
   • Girls' school
   • Cats' eyes
   • Pupils' voice


3. When the noun is plural but does not end in 's', use apostrophe (') and 's' .
   Examples :
   • Children's toys
   • Women's function
   • Men's office
   • Mice's tails

Uses of Possessive Nouns

1. With the names of living things - the lion's tail, the boy's pen.
2. With personified objects - India's people, at death's door.
3. With time, space and weight - a week's holiday, a pound's weight.

Nouns

The words used for people, animals, places or things are called nouns.

Examples :

• I live in Mumbai.
• Cow is a domestic animal.
• Our team has won the match.

Kinds of Nouns

There are five types of nouns :

1. Proper Noun
2. Common Noun
3. Collective Noun
4. Material Noun
5. Abstract Noun

Proper Noun

A proper noun is a special name given to a particular thing, place, animal or person.

Examples :

• Islamabad in in Pakistan.
• The Himalayas lie in the north of India.

Common Noun

A common noun is a general name that is given to all things, places and animals or persons of one kind.

Examples :

• A photographer uses a camera.
• Girls are sweet.

Collective Noun

A common or proper noun that is the name of a collection or group of similar things or persons is known as a collective noun.

Examples :

• The whole class was shocked.
• The team played well.

Material Noun

A material noun stands for the matter or substance of which things are made of.

Examples :

• Bottles are made of glass.
• My ring is made of gold.

Abstract Noun

A common noun that is the name of a thing that we cannot aee touch, but can only think of, hear or feel, is an abstract noun.

Examples :

• The baby's skin is soft.
• Honesty is the best policy.

Some Collective Nouns

1. A bouquet of flowers
2. A school of fish
3. A bunch of keys
4. A brood of hens
5. A herd of elephants
6. A pride of lions
7. A crowd of people
8. A troop of monkeys
9. A box of crayons
10. A murder of crows
11. A swarm of bees
12. A parliament of owls
13. A flock of birds/sheep
14. An ambus of tigers
15. A herd of cattle
16. A litter of puppies/kittens
17. A tower of giraffes
18. A crash of rhinos

Nouns (Number)

Nouns can be singular or plural

Singular Number denotes one person or thing.
Examples : ant, boy, apple, glass, etc

Plural Number denotes more than one person or thing.
Examples : ants, boys, apples, glasses, etc.

Countable Nouns

Nouns that name the things we can count are called countable nouns.
Examples : one boy, four boys.

Uncountable Nouns

Nouns that name the things that cannot be counted are called uncountable nouns.
Examples : milk, sugar, coffee, etc.

Making Plurals

• We add -s to many nouns to make them plural.

  Singular	Plural
  boy	boys
  book	books
  cow	cows
  dog	dogs
  door	doors
  egg	eggs
  friend	friends
  tree	trees
  map	maps
  rat	rats
  train	trains
  tiger	tigers
  kite	kites
  umbrella	umbrellas



• When the noun ends with -s, -ss, -ch, -sh, -x, we add -es to the singular form to make the plural.

  Singular	Plural
  ass	asses
  church	churches
  batch	batches
  box	boxes
  bus	buses
  bush	bushes
  watch	watches
  tax	taxes
  fox	foxes
  glass	glasses
  branch	branches
  peach	peaches
  brush	brushes
  torch	torches



• When the noun ends in -y and there is a consonnt before it, we change -y into -i and add -es.

  Singular	Plural
  jelly	jellies
  lady	ladies
  party	parties
  city	cities
  pony	ponies
  puppy	puppies
  spy	spies
  fairy	fairies
  family	families
  berry	berries
  body	bodies
  cherry	cherries
  baby	babies
  diary	diaries
  deity	deities
  story	stories
  library	libraries
  fly	flies



• When the noun ends with -y with a vowel before it, we add -s at the end to make the plural.

  Singular	Plural
  hankey	hankeys
  trolley	trolleys
  turkey	turkeys
  valley	valleys
  storey	storeys
  toy	toys
  tray	trays
  airway	airways
  donkey	donkeys
  key	keys
  monkey	monkeys
  ray	rays
  bay	bays
  boy	boys



• When the noun ends with -f or -fe, we change -f or -fe into -v and add -es at the end to make the plural.

  Singular	Plural
  shelf	shelves
  thief	thieves
  wife	wives
  wolf	wolves
  half	halves
  knife	knives
  leaf	leaves
  loaf	loaves



• When the noun ends with -f, we only add -s to make the plural in some cases.

  Singular	Plural
  roof	roofs
  proof	proofs
  chief	chiefs
  cliff	cliffs



• When the noun ends with -f we can also form the plural by adding -s at the end or by changing -f to -v and adding -es at the end.

  Singular	Plural
  scarf	scarfs/scarves
  wharf	wharfs/wharves
  dwarf	dwarfs/dwarves
  hoof	hoofs/hooves



• When the noun ends with -o, we add -es at the end to make the plural.

  Singular	Plural
  volcano	volcanoes
  tornado	tornadoes
  mosquito	mosquitoes
  potato	potatoes
  tomato	tomatoes
  hero	heroes
  mango	mangoes
  buffalo	buffaloes
  cargo	cargoes
  echo	echoes



• Sometimes when the noun ends with -o, we form the plural by adding only -s at the end.

  Singular	Plural
  kimono	kimonos
  piano	pianos
  photo	photos
  rhino	rhinos
  bamboo	bamboos
  cuckoo	cuckoos
  dynamo	dynamos
  hippo	hippos
  kangaroo	kangaroos
  zoo	zoos



• We make many plurals by changing the vowels.

  Singular	Plural
  mouse	mice
  tooth	teeth
  woman	women
  goose	geese
  louse	lice
  man	men



• Some nouns have same singular and plural forms.

  Singular	Plural
  salmon	salmon
  sheep	sheep
  shellfish	shellfish
  fish	fish
  reindeer	reindeer
  deer	deer



• Some nouns have no singular form.
  slippers, boots, shorts, jeans, pants, stockings, trousers, pyjamas, goggles, spectacles, scissors, gloves, binoculars, shoes, sandals, tongs


• Given below are plural forms of compound nouns :

  Singular	Plural
  commander-in-chief	commanders-in-chief
  step-mother	step-mothers
  washerman	washermen
  father-in-law	fathers-in-law
  passer-by	passers-by
  son-in-law	sons-in-law
  brother-in-law	brothers-in-law